Neo-Pythagorean Philosophy

The ethico-religious society founded by Pythagoras, which flourished especially

in Magna Græcia in the fifth century B. C., disappears completely from history

during the fourth century, when philosophy reached the zenith of its perfection at

Athens. Here and there, however, there appears a philosopher who reverts to the

Pythagorean doctrine of numbers, and in a general way manifests the tendency

of the school towards religious ethics and the practices of asceticism. Beginning

with the middle of the first century B. C., a more systematic attempt was made to

restore the speculative philosophy of the Pythagoreans and combine it with the

practice of astrology and sorcery. The first of these systematic

neo-Pythagoreans was Figulus, a Roman philosopher who lived at Alexandria

about the middle of the first century B. C., and was a friend of Cicero. Other

Romans also contributed to the movement, the chief of whom were Vatinius and

the Sextians. It was, however, at Alexandria that the most influential of the

neo-Pythagoreans taught. In the second and third centuries of the Christian era,

the philosophers of the school became, so to speak, apostles of the cult, and

travelled throughout the Roman Empire. The names most prominently associated

with this active philosophical campaign are those of Moderatus of Gades,

Apollonius of Tyana, Nicomachus of Gerasa, Numenius, and Philostratus. Like

the neo-Platonists (see NEO-PLATONISM), the neo-Pythagoreans definitely

placed their philosophy at the disposal of the pagan opponents of Christianity.

Their original aim — to save the pagan world from moral and social ruin by the

introduction of the religious element into philosophy and into conduct — was, of

course, conceived without any reference to the claims of Christianity. But as

soon as the Christian religion came to be recognized as a factor in the

intellectual and political life of the Roman Empire, philosophy, in the form of

Neo-Pythagoreanism, made active campaign against the Christians, proclaimed

its own system of spiritual regeneration, and set up in opposition to Christ and

the Saints the heroes of philosophical tradition and legend, especially

Pythagoras and Apollonius of Tyana.

SPECULATIVE SYSTEM

The neo-Pythagoreans were methodical eclectics, They admitted into their

speculative system not only the traditional teachings of the Pythagorean school

but also elements of Platonism, Aristoteleanism, and Stoicism. Besides, they

derived from Oriental religions with which they were in contact at Rome as well

as at Alexandria, a highly spiritual notion of God. There was, naturally, very little

coherence in a system developed from principles so divergent. Neither was there

agreement in the school even in respect of fundamental tenets. Nevertheless, it

may, in general, be said that the school placed God, the supremely spiritual

One, at the head of all reality. This, of course, was Oriental in its origin. Next,

they interpreted the Pythagorean doctrine in a Platonic sense, when they taught

that numbers are the thoughts of God. Thirdly, borrowing from Stoicism, they

went onto maintain that numbers, emanating as forces from the divine thoughts,

are, not indeed the substance of things, but the forms according to which things

are fashioned. From Aristotle they borrowed the doctrine that the world is eternal

and that there is a distinction between terrestrial and celestial matter. Their

cosmology, in spite of this Aristotelean influence, is dominated to a great extent

by the belief that the stars are deities and that the powers of air, earth, and sky

are demons.

ETHICS AND RELIGION

In their theory of conduct the neo-Pythagoreans attach great importance to

personal asceticism, contemplation, and the worship of a purely spiritual deity.

At the same time, it is an essential part of their ethical system that freedom from

the trammels of matter and final union with God are to be obtained only by

invoking the aid of friendly spirits and God-sent men and by thwarting the efforts

of malign demons. This latter principle led to the practice of magic and sorcery

and eventually to a good deal of charlatanry. The principle that the friendly spirits

and the souls of God's special messengers aid men in the struggle for spiritual

perfection led to the practice of honouring and even deifying the heroes of

antiquity and the representatives of wisdom such as Pythagoras and Apollonius.

With this purpose in view the philosophers of this school wrote "Lives" of

Pythagoras which are full of fabulous tales, stories in which more than natural

wisdom, skill, and sanctity are attributed to the hero. They did not hesitate to

invent where exaggeration failed to accomplish their aim, so that they gave only

too much justification to the modern critic's description of their biographical

activity as representing the "Golden Age of Apocryphal literature". In this spirit

and with this purpose in view Philostratus, about the year A. D. 220, wrote a "Life

of Apollonius" which is of special importance because, while it is not a professed

imitation of the Gospels, it was evidently written with a view of rivalling the gospel

narrative. Apollonius was born at Tyana in Cappadocia four years before the

Christian era. At an early age he devoted himself under various masters, to the

study of philosophy and the practice of asceticism. After the five years of silence

imposed by the rule of Pythagoras, he began his journeys. Throughout Asia

Minor he travelled from city to city teaching the doctrines of the sect. Then he

journeyed to the far East in search of the wisdom of the magi and the brahmans,

and, after his return, took up once more the task of teaching. Later he went to

Greece, and thence to Rome, where he lived for a time under the emperor Nero.

In 69 be was at Alexandria, where he attracted the attention of Vespasian.

Summoned to Rome by Domitian, he was cast into prison, but escaped to

Greece, and died two years later. The place of his death is variously given as

Ephesus, Rhodes, and Crete. Into the framework of these facts Philostratus

weaves a tissue of alleged miraculous events, prophecies, visions, and prodigies

of various kinds. It is important to remark in criticism of Philostratus's narrative,

that he lived one hundred years after the events which he describes. Moreover,

according to Philostratus's own account, Apollonius did not lay claim to divine

prerogatives. He believed that the "virtue" which he possessed was to be

attributed to his knowledge of Pythagorean philosophy and his observance of its

prescriptions. He held as a general principle that anyone who attained the same

degree of wisdom and asceticism could acquire the same power. The parallel,

therefore, which was drawn between his extraordinary deeds and the miracles

narrated in the Gospels does not stand the verdict of criticism. Our Lord claimed

to be God, and appealed to His miracles as a proof of His divinity. Apollonius

regarded his own powers as natural. Finally, it should be remembered that the

Pythagorean biographers openly acknowledged "the principle of permitting

exaggeration and deceit in the cause of philosophy" (Newman). The "Lives" of

Pythagoras and Apollonius are to be judged by the standards of fiction and not

by the canons of historical criticism. Among those who, overlooking this

distinction, have tried to make capital against Christianity out of this class of

Pythagorean literature are Lord Herbert and Blount, mentioned in Newman's

essay on Apollonius, and Jean de Castillon, who was instigated by Frederick the

Great.

Philostratus's Life of Apollonius, and the Letters ascribed to the latter were published in

PHILOSTRATUS, Opera Omnia (Leipzig, ed. OLEARIUS, 1709); Ibid. (ed. KAYSER, 1870-71); the

works of NICOMACHUS OF GERASA are included in IAMBLICHUS, Theologumena Arithmeticœ (ed.

AST, Leipzig, 1817); ZELLER, Philosophie der Griechen, III, 2 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1881), 79 ff.;

NEWMAN, Historical Sketches, I (London, 1882), 301 ff.; TURNER, History of Philosophy (Boston,

1903), 204 ff.

William Turner

Transcribed by Douglas J. Potter

Dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ

The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume X

Nihil Obstat, October 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor

Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York

The Catholic Encyclopedia: NewAdvent.org